Iceland Education

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Education
Virtually all Icelanders are literate. Education is free through the university level and is compulsory for all children between the ages of 6 and 16. In 1991 25,800 pupils were enrolled in primary schools, 30,000 students attended secondary and vocational schools, and 6200 were enrolled in higher institutions. The leading institution of higher education is the University of Iceland (1911), in Reykjavík. The country also has a technical college and colleges of agriculture and music as well as teacher-training schools.

The principal libraries of Iceland are the University Library, the National Library, and the City Library, all located in Reykjavík. The capital is also the site of the Museum of Natural History; the National Museum, containing a major collection of Icelandic antiquities; and an art gallery housing the work of the Icelandic sculptor Einar Jónsson.

Iceland (Icelandic, Ísland), island republic, in the North Atlantic Ocean, about 300 km (about 185 mi) east of Greenland and about 1000 km (about 620 mi) west of Norway. The country's extreme dimensions are about 305 km (about 190 mi) from north to south and about 485 km (about 300 mi) from east to west. Iceland has an area of 103,000 sq km (39,769 sq mi).

Land and Resources
In shape Iceland is generally elliptic, and the coastline, with a total length of about 5955 km (about 3700 mi), is deeply indented, especially in the west and north. Important embayments on the West Coast are Faxaflói (bay) and Breidhafjördhur (fjord). Projecting northwest between the latter and Húnaflói (bay), one of the major indentations on the northern coast, is an irregularly formed peninsula fringed by precipitous cliffs. The peninsular coastline makes up about 30 percent of the total for the island. Volcanic in origin, Iceland consists predominantly of uninhabitable lava tablelands with mountainous outcroppings; the lowlands, situated mainly along the southwestern coast, occupy about 25 percent of the total area. The bulk of the Icelandic population lives along the coast, particularly in the southwest.
Elevations in the uplands average between about 610 and 915 m (about 2000 and 3000 ft). Hvannadalshnúkur (2119 m/6952 ft), in the southeast, is the highest summit. Nearly 15 percent of the surface of the island is covered by snowfields and glaciers. Vatnajökull, a glacier in the southeast, has an area of about 8550 sq km (about 3300 sq mi). The island has more than 120 glaciers and numerous small lakes and swift-flowing rivers.
Iceland is remarkable for the number of its volcanoes, craters, and thermal springs and for the frequency of its earthquakes. More than 100 volcanoes, including at least 25 that have erupted in historic times, are situated on the island. Noteworthy among the volcanoes are Mount Hekla (1491 m/4891 ft), which has erupted many times, including in 1766, 1947, and 1980, and nearby Laki, with about 100 separate craters. Vast lava fields have been created by volcanoes, and many eruptions have caused widespread devastation. In 1783, when the only known eruption of Laki occurred, molten lava, volcanic ashes and gases, and torrential floods resulting from melting ice and snow led to the deaths of more than 9000 people, ruined large tracts of arable land, and destroyed about 80 percent of the livestock on the island. In 1963 an ocean-floor volcano erupted off the southwestern coast of Iceland, creating Surtsey Island. In 1973 a volcano on Heimaey Island became active, forcing the evacuation of the island's main town, Vestmannaeyjar.
Thermal springs are common in Iceland. Particularly numerous in the volcanic areas, the springs occur as geysers, as boiling mud lakes, and in various other forms. Geysir, generally regarded as the most spectacular, erupts at irregular intervals (usually from 5 to 36 hr), ejecting a column of boiling water up to about 60 m (about 200 ft) in height. Most homes and industrial establishments in the Reykjavík area are heated by water piped from nearby hot springs.

Climate
Iceland has a relatively mild and equable climate, despite its high altitude and its proximity to the Arctic. Because of oceanic influences, notably the North Atlantic Drift (a continuation of the Gulf Stream), climatic conditions are moderate in all sections of the island. The mean annual temperature at Reykjavík is about 5° C (about 41° F), with a range from -0.6° C (31° F) in January to 11.1° C (52° F) in July. In the northwestern, northern, and eastern coastal regions, subject to the effects of polar currents and drifting ice, temperatures are generally lower. Windstorms of considerable violence are characteristic during much of the winter season. Annual precipitation ranges between about 1270 and 2030 mm (about 50 and 80 in) along the southern coast, and is only about 510 mm (about 20 in) along the northern coast. The southern slopes of some of Iceland's interior mountains receive up to about 4570 mm (about 180 in) of moisture per year.

Plants and Animals
The vegetation of Iceland is of the arctic European type. Grass and heather are abundant along the southern coast and afford pasturage for sheep and other livestock. Extensive forests probably existed on the island in prehistoric times, but present-day trees, such as birch and spruce, are relatively scarce. Bilberries and crowberries are the only kinds of fruit that grow on the island. The arctic foxarctic foxbly living in Iceland at the time of the first human settlement. Reindeer were introduced about 1770; rodents were brought in on ships. Neither reptiles nor frogs and toads are found. About 100 species of birds inhabit the island; many of these species are aquatic, among them the whistling swan and several kinds of duck. The eider duck is valued for its down. Whales and seals live along the coast, as do cod, haddock, halibut, and herring. Many salmon and trout inhabit Iceland's freshwater rivers and lakes.

Population
The population of Iceland is extremely homogeneous, being almost entirely of Scandinavian and Celtic origin. Beginning in the 1940s a large-scale movement to the coastal towns and villages has occurred. More than 90 percent of the people now live in cities and towns. The population of Iceland (1991 estimate) was 259,577. The overall population density was about 2.5 persons per sq km (about 6.5 per sq mi).

Political Divisions and Principal Cities
Iceland is divided into eight regions, each with its own administrative center. Reykjavík (population, 1991 estimate, 99,623) is the capital and chief port. Other towns, with their 1991 populations, are Akureyri (14,436), on the northern coast; Kópavogur (16,677), Hafnarfjördhur (15,623), and Keflavík (7566), on the western coast near Reykjavík; and Vestmannaeyjar (4933), on the tiny island of Heimaey off the southern coast.

Religion and Language
The state church of Iceland is the Evangelical Lutheran church, with which more than 93 percent of the people are affiliated. Complete religious freedom exists, however. Free Lutherans and Roman Catholics make up a small minority. The language is Icelandic, which has remained closer to the Old Norse of Iceland's original Viking settlers than to the other Scandinavian languages. See ICELANDIC LANGUAGE; ICELANDIC LITERATURE.


Economy
Private enterprise forms the basis of the economy of Iceland, but the government exercises a considerable degree of control and supervision over key sectors. Until the close of the 19th century, agriculture was the chief occupation, with fishing as a supplementary source of income. By the middle of the 20th century, however, fishing and fish processing had become the major industries. Hydroelectric power potential is abundant and is being developed to further industrialization. In 1970 Iceland became a member of the European Free Trade Association. The annual national budget in the late 1980s included revenue of about $1.51 billion and expenditure of about $1.55 billion. Iceland suffered from a high rate of inflation in the late 1970s and the 1980s, but the rate decreased substantially in the early 1990s.

Agriculture
About 5 percent of Iceland's labor force is engaged in agriculture. Less than 1 percent of the land area is under cultivation. The principal crops are turnips and potatoes. Livestock raising is a major occupation, and considerable quantities of dairy products, wool, mutton and lamb, and chicken eggs are produced. In 1991 the country had about 511,000 sheep, 78,000 cattle, and 74,000 horses.

Fishing
Fishing and fish processing are the most important Icelandic industries, accounting for about 79 percent of yearly exports and employing about 12 percent of the labor force. Iceland is a leading producer of cod, and other major components of the catch include capelin, haddock, crustaceans, herring, redfish, and saithe. About one million metric tons of fish were caught in 1991. Coastal towns have extensive facilities for fish processing. In response to international pressure, Iceland suspended all whaling operations in 1989. However, in June 1992 Iceland withdrew from the International Whaling Commission, disputing the designation of some species of whales as endangered and claiming that certain species threatened Iceland's commercial fish population.

Mining
Iceland has few proven mineral resources, and profitable development has been difficult. Minerals of commercial value include pumice and diatomite.

Manufacturing
Aside from fish processing, manufacturing is primarily for domestic consumption needs. Principal products are clothing, shoes, soaps, and chemicals. Book production is also a large trade in Iceland. Some electrical appliances are made. In addition, major plants producing aluminum (from imported bauxite) and ferrosilicon have been established to take advantage of Iceland's energy resources.

Energy
Almost all of Iceland's electricity is produced in hydroelectric installations. Annual output in the late 1980s was about 4.4 billion kilowatt hours, based on an installed generating capacity of 937,450 kilowatts. Hot water from springs is used for heating and in some manufacturing operations.

Currency and Banking
The monetary unit of Iceland is the króna, consisting of 100 aurar (75 krónur equal U.S.$1; 1994). In 1981 the government introduced a new króna, equivalent to 100 old krónur. Currency is issued by the state-owned Central Bank (1961). Iceland has several private commercial banks.

Foreign Trade
The yearly value of Iceland's imports is usually greater than that of its exports. In the early 1990s annual imports cost about $1.77 billion, and exports earned about $1.55 billion. Major imports include refined petroleum, machinery, transportation equipment, textiles and clothing, chemicals, basic manufactures, and foodstuffs. Fish and fish products make up 79 percent of Iceland's yearly exports, and aluminum accounts for about 9 percent of the annual total. The country's main trade partners are Great Britain, the United States, Germany, Denmark, the Netherlands, Sweden, France, Norway, and Japan.

Transportation and Communications
Iceland has about 11,390 km (about 7080 mi) of roads, which are mainly located in coastal areas. About 142,600 motor vehicles were registered in the late 1980s. The island has no railroads or navigable rivers. The country has several seaports, including Arkanes, Keflavík, Reykjavík, and Siglufjördhur. Icelandair provides domestic and international air service.
Five daily newspapers are published in Reykjavík, and a sixth is published in Akureyri. Together they have a combined circulation of nearly 132,700. Telephone and telegraph services are owned and administered by the government; the state monopoly on radio and television broadcasting ended in 1986. In 1991 the country had about 155,000 radios and 84,000 television receivers.

Government
Iceland is governed under a constitution that became effective when the country achieved full independence in 1944. Iceland has no armed forces of its own except for 130 coast guard personnel, but is a member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization. As of June 1992, 3000 United States military personnel were stationed at Keflavík air base.

Executive
The head of state of Iceland is a president, who is elected by universal suffrage by persons aged 18 and older to a four-year term. The president has little power, and the country's chief executive is a prime minister, who is responsible to Parliament. The prime minister is assisted by a cabinet, which holds real executive power.

Legislature
The legislature of Iceland is the Althing, which has met almost continually since its establishment in AD 930, and which was converted from a bicameral to a unicameral system in 1991. It has 63 members, 54 elected to four-year terms under a system of proportional representation and 9 allotted to the political parties based on their relative vote totals in the elections.

Political Parties
In the late 1980s the leading political organizations of Iceland were the Independence party, a conservative group; the Progressive and Social Democratic parties, both moderately leftist; the People's Alliance, with a Marxist program; the populist Citizens' party; and the Women's Alliance.

Local Government
The basic local unit is the commune, governed by an elected council. In 1991 Iceland had 201 communes, of which 31 were towns.

Judiciary
The highest tribunal of Iceland is the supreme court, made up of a chief justice and seven other justices appointed by the president. Other judicial bodies include district and special courts.

History
Some Irish monks may have reached Iceland before AD 800, but it remained largely unsettled until about 870. Norwegian Viking Ingólfr Arnarson is traditionally considered the first permanent settler; he established his farm at Reykjavík, now the capital. During the next 60 years, other settlers flocked to the island from the Scandinavian countries and the British Isles. In 930 a central organization for the whole island was superimposed on the already existent regional polities in the form of a general legislature called the Althing.

Headless State
The commonwealth founded by the Icelanders was a republic without executive authority or any head of state. Legislative and judicial powers were wielded by the Althing, but enforcement was the responsibility of the aggrieved party, sometimes assisted by a powerful chieftain. Nevertheless, the state prospered for more than 300 years. The land had ample resources of fish, seal, and fowl, and grazing lands were extensive. Icelandic traders were active in Scandinavia, the continental European countries, and the British Isles, and culture flourished in a golden age that produced the great body of medieval Icelandic literature. Late in the 10th century Icelanders colonized Greenland, and early in the 11th century, according to one tradition, Leif Ericson, the Icelandic explorer, reached the mainland of North America (Vinland), although attempts at settlement there were frustrated.
Icelanders accepted Christianity by arbitration in 1000, and the church gradually destabilized secular authority. For one thing, it undermined the old political order, in which the pagan priests served as secular chieftains. Furthermore, the church sought foreign support in its struggle with secular powers. Iceland was under the archbishopric of Nidaros (now Trondheim), Norway, and King Håkon IV of Norway, aided by the internal squabbles of Icelandic politicians, ruthlessly exploited the situation. In 1262-1264 his ambition was fulfilled when Icelanders recognized him as their king.

Decline
Foreign domination brought with it a long decline of Icelandic fortunes. This was especially true after the country, along with Norway, passed to the Danish crown in 1380. As Denmark sought to expand its shipping and commerce, it did not want the lucrative Icelandic trade to flow to England or Germany, the two countries that had the greatest interest in the island. Gradually, the Danish managed to reduce the trading activities of these nations in Iceland, and by the middle of the 16th century they had virtually ceased. At the same time, the royal authority greatly increased its interference in other spheres of Icelandic life. In 1550 Lutheranism was forced on the nation, a feat crowned with the execution without trial of the last Roman Catholic bishop, Jón Arason, and two of his sons. Half a century later, in 1602, a trade monopoly was instituted. From that time until 1787, commerce with Iceland was permitted only to licensed merchants, who would buy their charters from the Crown for exorbitant fees with the knowledge that they could recoup their investment manifold from their captive customers. Consequently, prices for necessities, such as grains, lumber, and metal goods, soared, while Icelandic products—mostly fish and wool—were undervalued because their prices were established by the same merchants. In the long run, this system of economic oppression reduced the nation to utter destitution.

Autocracy
In 1660 King Frederick III of Denmark assumed autocratic powers in his homeland, and two years later Icelandic leaders were forced, under threat of arms, to accept the absolute monarchy in Iceland. The abrogation of the Althing's legislative powers, as well as the denial of its judicial role, quickly followed. The country now stood stripped of all political power.
During the 18th century, Icelanders reached the lowest point of their national existence. At the end of the Age of Settlement, in 930, some 60,000 to 90,000 people are estimated to have lived in the country; in the early years of the 18th century, when the first national census was taken, the population was down to 50,000. A series of disasters, including a smallpox epidemic in 1707-1709, famines in the middle of the century, and the eruption of the volcano Laki in 1783, further reduced the nation to some 35,000 inhabitants, most of them paupers; Denmark seriously considered evacuating all the remaining Icelanders to the heathlands of the Jutland Peninsula.

Turning Point
In the 18th century, however, national fortunes reached a turning point. Shortly after the middle of the century an enterprising Icelandic official established some cottage industries in Reykjavík, then a mere collection of huts. Although his effort eventually failed, it provided inspiration for other attempts that improved conditions in the country. The first tangible sign of this was the modification of the trade monopoly in 1787, allowing commerce with any Danish subject.
Although the 19th century began with the total suspension of the Althing, it eventually became an age of reawakening. The waves of revolution on the European continent brought about the end of absolutism in Denmark, and soon the Icelanders began to clamor for their national rights. In this struggle they were led by the scholar-politician Jón Sigurdsson, now revered as a national hero. The Althing was reconvened in 1843; trade was made free to all nations in 1854; and 20 years later a new constitution was promulgated, granting the Althing partial control over domestic finances.

Rapid Progress
Until this time, the Icelandic economy had remained practically medieval, but with financial authority established inside the country, it began to progress at a relatively fast pace. At the same time the struggle for independence continued; in 1904 Iceland attained home rule, and in 1918 Denmark finally recognized it as an independent kingdom. For the next 25 years, however, under the Treaty of Union, it was bound to Denmark in a personal union under Christian X. During this time, until World War II, great economic strides were made, despite the lean years of the Great Depression.
When Denmark was occupied by Nazi Germany in April 1940, Iceland was cut off from its head of state. A month later, it, too, was occupied, but by British troops. In May 1941 the Icelandic government appointed Sveinn Björnsson, a former minister to Denmark, as regent.
The Treaty of Union ran out in 1943, and by early 1944, given that Denmark was still occupied, Icelanders decided to act unilaterally to terminate it. In a national referendum, with 98.6 percent of eligible voters participating, 97.3 percent voted to sever all ties with Denmark, and 95 percent chose a republic. The Icelandic republic was accordingly proclaimed at Thingvöllur on June 17, 1944, with Sveinn Björnsson as the first president.

Free but Occupied
Paradoxically, Iceland celebrated its final deliverance from alien rule while still occupied by another foreign power. In 1941 the Icelandic government had been pressed by Britain and the United States to ask for U.S. protection, primarily to free the British occupation troops for service elsewhere. Contrary to contractual obligations, however, the United States did not withdraw its forces at the end of the war, instead requesting permanent military bases in the country. These were refused. A compromise agreement was made in 1946, permitting the United States control of the Keflavík airport for six and a half years. Before that pact expired, Iceland became a founding member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), and in 1951, during the Korean War, the United States again obtained Icelandic permission to station troops in the country, this time under a NATO umbrella. This U.S. presence, uninterrupted since 1941, has been profoundly divisive for more than a generation; Icelanders, while overwhelmingly sympathetic to the Western democracies, are still evenly split on the issue. In 1985 the Althing unanimously passed a resolution that banned the entry of nuclear weapons into Iceland.
A second, perhaps more fundamental, question of national existence since World War II involved another Western democracy, Britain. In 1958 Iceland decided to extend its fisheries jurisdiction from 4 to 12 mi; the British responded by sending warships to protect their trawlers in Icelandic waters. The so-called Cod War that resulted lasted until 1961, but it was renewed with every extension of Icelandic jurisdiction over adjacent waters—to 50 mi in 1972 and 200 mi in 1975. It was not until 1977 that Icelanders finally became the undisputed masters of their most vital resources. The intractable problem of inflation remained; during 1980-1988 it averaged 38 percent annually, and no government was able to break the upward spiral. By 1990 inflation was somewhat lower at 16 percent. Even so, Icelanders enjoy a standard of living among the highest in the modern world. Icelandic politics have generally been dominated by coalition governments, a situation that continues in the 1990s.
Iceland's president, Vigdís Finnbogadóttir, the world's first popularly elected female head of state, was first elected in the 1980s. She began her fourth term of office in 1992.

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